The Fall of the Studio system

The traditional studio system was the primary method of filming and distribution for Hollywood films created between the 20's and 60's, where the market was essentially composed of 8 major studios. During this time, the studios created films on their own studio lots (which were purpose made for the films), distributed them through their own distribution sub-companies and showed them at their self-owned substantial theatre chains.

My chosen films

Bonnie and Clyde

"Small-time crook Clyde Barrow (Warren Beatty) tries to steal a car and winds up with its owner's daughter, dissatisfied small-town girl Bonnie Parker (Faye Dunaway). Their crimes quickly spiral from petty theft to bank robbery, but tensions between the couple and the other members of their gang--hapless driver C.W. (Michael J. Pollard), Clyde's suave older brother Buck (Gene Hackman) and Buck's flibbertigibbet wife, Blanche (Estelle Parsons) --could destroy them all."

"Convinced of his irresistible appeal to women, Texas dishwasher Joe Buck (Jon Voight) quits his job and heads for New York City, thinking he'll latch on to some rich dowager. New York, however, is not as hospitable as he imagined, and Joe soon finds himself living in an abandoned building with a Dickensian layabout named Enrico "Ratso" Rizzo (Dustin Hoffman). The two form a rough alliance, and together they kick-start Joe's hustling career just as Ratso's health begins to deteriorate."

"Suffering from insomnia, disturbed loner Travis Bickle (Robert De Niro) takes a job as a New York City cabbie, haunting the streets nightly, growing increasingly detached from reality as he dreams of cleaning up the filthy city. When Travis meets pretty campaign worker Betsy (Cybill Shepherd), he becomes obsessed with the idea of saving the world, first plotting to assassinate a presidential candidate, then directing his attentions toward rescuing 12-year-old prostitute Iris (Jodie Foster)."

New Wave Research

For my contextual studies I am going to study the American New Wave, and in particular the three films: Bonnie and Clyde (1967), Midnight Cowboy (1969) and Taxi Driver (1976).

Dir. Arthur Penn

John Schlesinger

Dir. Martin Scorsese

The 'American New Wave' or 'New Hollywood' was a period of time from the mid 60's to the early 80's when the prominent film studios fell into obscurity and a wave of new, mostly young filmmakers come to prominence. These film makers had heavy influence over the way films were made and also the types of issues and themes that they tackled. The films were often low budget B films as the directors didn't have the huge budgets from studios to back them, and a lot of characteristics of American New Wave style is born out of this lack of funding. Examples of this are the use of regular people (non actors), handheld camera shots, and shooting on location rather than the big purpose made studios previously filmed at.

Dubbed the "New Hollywood" by the press, their films were mostly financed by the major studios, but they introduced subject matter and styles that set them apart from studio tradition. They re-worked and re-imagined some of Hollywood’s classic genres – such as the crime film, the war film and the western – and by so doing, presented a more critical view of America past and present.
The films that came out in this era were not perfect: experimentation and mistakes were common and plentiful, and this new mindset and approach to creating films is something that largely inspired the new young film makers of the current generation. Before World War II, the French new wave directors looked up to American film makers and were influenced by them, and then they were actually able to make movies which led to the French new wave. After this, the studio system collapsed and the new American directors were in turn influenced by the French, and although a few of their techniques carried over, it was mostly the approach and the freedom to express taboo subject matter that infiltrated the new films.

Shutter Speed Examples

 1/30th of a second

 1/50th of a second

 1/100th of a second

Shutter speed determines the amount of time that the camera shutter is open for and how long the sensor is exposed to light. Having the shutter open for a longer amount of time means you're recording light for a longer period of time, and so you get motion blur in your images. If you want to freeze action, you would shoot on a fast shutter speed so you're only capturing a small period of light. In moving image, shutter speed does the same thing and different shutter speeds paired with certain frame rates give different results. In moving image, the shutter speed determines how long each frame in the video is exposed for. In the examples above, you can see that the slowest shutter speed (1/30th) produces a blurred still, and the video as a result looks quite smooth and blurred throughout. In the opposite extreme, the video with the short shutter speed (1/100th), has very clear lines and images which makes it seem quite frantic and non fluid. This could have practical applications, such as showing somebody as being in a panicked state.

ISO Demonstration

ISO affects the sensitivity of the camera sensor that captures the light. In moving image, ISO does basically the same as it does in still images. Using ISO 100 makes the sensor the least sensitive and lets in the least light, but it also produces the best image with the least noise. On the other hand, using ISO 1600 let in a lot more light but as a result of the sensor being more sensitive, there was a lot of noise which made the image less appealing. In the second clip (ISO 1600), you can see the effects of the grain quite badly, especially when the camera points at the blank surface on the wall. My videos are fairly effective when it comes to showing how ISO affects image quality, but ideally the shots could have been more similar and of more interesting subjects. Both of my shots were fairly shaky as a result of shooting handheld with a 50MM lens that made the shaking worse. To lessen this problem, I used the warp stabiliser to smooth out the movement in the clips.

French New Wave Notes

After the second World War, films continued to be made in the same way as before, with editors having to conform to the established rules. In France, a group of critics wanted to challenge the rules, and proceeded to create their own films. The result of this movement was very influential to directors like Quentin Tarantino and Martin Scorsese etc. These film makers helped to change the perception of what film making was. It's important to note that the techniques they used weren't new at all, but Hollywood had never been exposed to it and so for American's, it was new. Bonnie and Clyde paved the way for the American New Wave, and in particular influenced Easy Rider.

Breathless


- The eye-lines don't match up in the shot reverse shot
- Jump cuts ahead in car
- Breaks the fourth wall
- Camera points at sun
- Breaks 180 degree rule
- Cuts to close ups in weird places

A Woman is a Woman

- Cuts straight outside with no context
- Intercut with shots of the television
- Breaks the fourth wall
- Is concerned with life rather than a grand story
- Music stops and starts for conversation
- Is very self aware that it is a film
- Red white and blue clothes in wardrobe, symbolizes French flag

My Life to Live

- Starts with close ups, personal connection with the audience
- Back to camera, no facial recognition
- Man is out of frame
- Same technique is repeated but behind the man

Contempt


- Can't see the actors faces, they are cuddled and being very personal and intimate with each other
- Actors are self obsessed, always talking about beauty and themselves
- Colour grading goes from red, to white, to blue, represents the French flag

Band of Outsiders

- Natural sound, not edited
- No cuts, natural conversation
- Sound cuts out completely
- Talks about films in a film
- Music cuts out during dance
- Natural dance, not perfect
- Whole thing is one shot

Alphaville

- Shots are random and sliced together to create a narrative
- Sticking a camera in a revolving door
- Long continuous takes, natural lighting
- Actions goes out of camera, doesn't cut

The 400 Blows

- Boys coat changes, didn't care about continuity
- Camera inside spinning ride, innovative technique and produced beautiful results
- Captured real reactions, not staged
- Capturing the real reactions of the kids watching the show

Jules and Jim


- Handheld camera is very shaky and you can't see very much
- Conversation is all one shot to save film
- People are reversed in shot reverse shot, didn't care about continuity and made mistakes

Pull Focus Examples and Evaluation

The task was to simply shoot a few clips demonstrating your ability to employ the pull focus technique. I think most of my clips worked well in demonstrating it but could have maybe been of more interesting subjects. Also, some of the clips had the foreground and background too close together, so the focus shift wasn't that big and the effect wasn't that noticeable. To improve upon this, I would just use objects that are further apart and get the camera closer to the foreground subject. The last thing that I would improve on would be to shoot in stronger light, as I had my aperture on the lowest setting (f3.5) and it was still too dark and I had to bump up the ISO to 400 or 800, resulting in some grainy examples. Overall, I think the video is fine for showing the technique, and just has a few things that could have been improved upon if I re-shot it.

Editing Technology

The development of editing technology

During the infancy years of moving image, all projections were just of one static shot and it ran for as long as there was film in the camera. The first cuts were used to establish continuity, like continuing action from one shot to the next. One of the first times this was done was in 1898's "Come Along, Do!", where a couple are outside an exhibition having lunch and then walk inside, and the camera cuts to them inside the building. This style of editing was done by literally cutting the strip of film and sticking it back together, which is where the name 'cutting' comes from in film.

In 1924, Iwan Serrurier invented the Moviola, which was a device that allowed the editor to view the film while cutting up the segments. Now, instead of looking at the film infront of a light and estimating where a good cut point was, you could get a much more precise idea of where to cut and thus helped push editing in a more efficient and sophisticated direction. Even today, amidst all the technological advances, some editors prefer to use this method, such as Michael Kahn who received an Oscar nomination for editing in Spielberg's 'Munich'.

Next were flatbed editors, which featured separate disks that you load film and magnetic tape (for audio) into. This meant that the audio and video tracks could be edited separately but most of the time they were synchronized with the help of a Clapperboard, which the editor would use to sync the action of the board snapping with the noise, and then the rest of the film would be synced the same. 

Non-Linear editing systems work in a copy and paste form and allow editors to cut and edit footage without actually working with the original material. This meant that instead of having to get it right first time because there was only one copy of the film, they could experiment more without the negatives of destructive editing. On the other hand, Linear video editing is a form of sequential editing. Often used for tape recordings, the editor goes through the footage, and records segments onto a master tape. This clips are recorded in order and a negative of this technique is that you can't go back and insert a clip in the sequence without completely starting again. 

Offline editing is the stage of editing where the footage is modified without the original footage being affected. This is done by importing the raw footage which can be thousands of hours long and then converting or digitizing it. The editors can then arrange it and then the online editing can begin, which is the final stage and has been largely replaced by video editing software. The process affects the original footage which is why there are stages before it to make sure everything is as it should be.

In 1971, the CMX 600 was introduced which was a computer that featured two screens and a light pointer input. The right monitor displayed the preview video, and was used by the editor to make decisions on cuts and other edits, and the left monitor showed the edited footage. Although the machine produced low quality video, it didn't matter since the machine's sole purpose was for offline editing, not the final edit. Then a LucasFilm spin-off company created the EditDroid, which was similar in that it was a nonlinear editing system but this one used Laser Discs, another advancement in the technology. The technology was sold to Avid and became 'Media Composer' or just 'Avid'. Avid is a software application, which meant that instead of editing being something done on a specific machine, it could now be done on any computer that could run the software.

Over the last few years, software like Final Cut and Premier Pro have provided aspiring film makers a cheaper alternative to the usually expensive editing tools. The main user base for these are hobbyists, but some major films have been edited on them. An example is The Social Network which won an Oscar for best editing, that was edited on Final Cut Pro.

Light Theory

Lighting is "one of the most important keys in making a quality video" (1). When creating a video, there are several things relating to lighting that you need to consider because they will affect the outcome of the image and as a result, will convey a certain feeling or mood. The first of these is the exposure, which is the amount of light that is entering the camera and hitting the sensor. Three factors affect the exposure, which are shutter speed, aperture and ISO. In moving image, shutter speed isn't generally changed except to compliment the frame rate being used. However, aperture and ISO can be changed based on creative intent, such as setting a low aperture to gain a shallow depth of field.


Next there is lighting techniques, which relates to mostly artificial lighting but can be applied to natural light. If the light source isn't intense, the result will likely be low-key lighting, and can end up "giving a feeling of enclosure" (2) and making the scene feel serious or dark in tone. On the flip side, if you have an intense light source, or flood the scene, the result is high-key lighting which "is used to suggest an upbeat mood" (3).


The position of your lights is also hugely important in terms of creating shadows are texture, especially in close up shots of faces. For example, if you are looking to create mood in your shot, you should consider off-centering your light so that you create shadows in the subject's face. But if you are looking for a more uplifting, flattering outcome then having three lights in a rembrandt style setup will give better results. This technique produces that are compelling but look naturally lit.


Natural lighting is completely different to artificial lighting setups, and is unpredictable. However, with movies like 'The Revenant' using almost entirely natural light (4), it is possible to get really great results. Shooting in the middle of the day tends to create harsh shadows on the face of your subject but earlier in the morning or later in the evening you get 'the golden hour' which is before and after sun rise and sunset, where the light is softer and richer in tone, producing more pleasing results.


1- Knice Creative. 2016. Importance of Lighting in Video Production - Knice Creative.

2- Millerson, GM, 1991. Lighting for Television & Film. 4th ed. Massachusetts: Focal Press.


3- Wikipedia. 2016. High-key lighting - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.


4- PetaPixel. 2016. 'The Revenant' Was Shot Almost Entirely with Natural Light.

Easy Rider Analysis

In this clip from Easy Rider (1969), two couples take acid and the scene uses multiple techniques to represent what the resulting effects are. The clip's use of these techniques is experimental and immerses the viewer into the world, giving a direct point of view to allow a more personal experience.

The clip starts with a wide shot of all four people sat down, and you start to get a sense that they are distressed. The woman on the far left kisses her guy, and the guy on the right is shaking his head. Pair this with the fact that the camera is static and you can decode that they are bored, have nothing better to be doing with their time, and are just hanging around for the sake of it. One man then proceeds to get out pills and they all take one. The shot doesn't cut, nor does the camera move, but continues to stay static. This allows the audience to take in all the small emotions, movements and reactions. This also infers that the group is very calm when taking the drugs. The camera isn't shaking or even handheld so there isn't a sense of panic behind something illegal. When asked what the pill is, the man with them says "nevermind, just shut up and take it" which further shows that he doesn't care about it.

In the background, there is diegetic noise off camera which sounds like the thumping of industrial equipment. It is rhythmic and plays through the whole clip and it adds an unusual sense of urgency and grit to the clip. The noise isn't far from the beat of a heart, and so even though the sound is distinctly machine-made, it adds a human quality to the audio. On the other hand though, the sound seems dangerous, like it is looming in the background. In this way, it also seems to act as a caution, or at least something to warn the viewers that something isn't right. Not long after they take the pills, there are short inter-cut clips of the outside of a building, which is the first time anything is shown but the static shot of the group. The cuts are paired with non diegetic audio of a woman speaking a Christian prayer or passage. This creates a juxtaposition between good and bad: religion tends to focus on making yourself a good person, namely to get into heaven, but the group are drinking and taking drugs. This creates an interesting dynamic as the short cuts are to show the resulting effects of the drugs they have taken.

The cuts between the shots get more frequent and last longer as supposedly the drugs start to take more of an effect and the camera pans up the building so that the sun shines right into the camera. This makes the screen very bright and gives a feeling of being overwhelmed, like everything is building and becoming more prominent. After this, we start to cut to a variety of different things, like the woman reciting the dialogue who is shown with a low angle close up shot. She dominates the screen for a second but now her voice is drowned out by a combination of the industrial thumping noise, ambient noises and somebody else speaking. This implies that everything is being drowned out in the group's heads, like their focus keeps shifting and they are being flooded with sensory inputs. There is a brief shot of the sun behind trees, and the camera focus shifts so the sun quickly comes out of focus, further playing into the feeling of being overwhelmed.

The man who originally got the pills says "shut up" in a very rapid shot of him leaning against a statue. This may be because he's feeling discomforted with his high, and wants the voices to stop. The montage of shots has an emphasis on religious iconography, such as a mid shot of a priest or minister and a zooming out shot of a small Jesus figure on a cross that pans up the building toward the sky. Also, the scene is set in a graveyard which results in some gritty images that give the scene a harrowing and dark presence. You see a woman taking her clothes off, and the next shot is of her lying in the graveyard naked. The adds to a theme of sinning that runs through the scene, starting with them drinking and taking drugs.